Training performance variations across menstrual cycle phases in female athletes and current approaches

Abstract

This review examines variations in training performance across menstrual cycle phases in female athletes in light of current evidence and offers practice-oriented recommendations. Fluctuations in estrogen and progesterone during the menstrual, follicular, ovulatory, and luteal phases may influence energy metabolism, neuromuscular control, thermoregulation, pain perception, and recovery processes; however, performance outcomes appear heterogeneous due to individual differences and methodological variability. Evidence suggests greater readiness for strength, power, and technical skills in the follicular phase; short-term advantages in coordination and speed around ovulation; and increased thermal strain, perceived exertion, and hydration demands in the luteal phase. Major sources of inconsistency in the literature include differences in phase verification methods, limited sample sizes, insufficient control of contraceptive use, and heterogeneity in testing schedules and environmental conditions. From an applied standpoint, integrating phase-aware and individualized load–recovery planning with nutrition and hydration strategies and symptom management protocols is recommended. Future research should prioritize standardized phase verification, sport-specific comparative designs, longitudinal monitoring, and multimodal data integration via wearable technologies to advance hormone-informed personalized periodization approaches